A juggling act in the classroom: Managing different learning styles

http://dx.doi.org.cmich.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.teln.2006.10.002
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Abstract

Nurse educators are challenged to develop teaching methods that accommodate the ways students prefer to learn and process new information. The author describes three learning style models applicable to college students: Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning and Learning Styles, Fleming and Mills' Sensory-Based Learning Styles, and The Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model. Specific challenges related to accommodating various learning styles in the classroom are discussed, concluding with a variety of teaching strategies designed to help nurse educators enhance student learning.

Keywords

  • Learning styles; 
  • Teaching strategies

1. Introduction

Nurse educators encounter a variety of learning styles when faced with a group of prospective nurses. Associate degree nursing programs are made up of nontraditional students including younger students possibly unaware of learning styles and more mature students who may be entrenched in one way of learning. Many nurse educators have limited knowledge of teaching strategies that address learning styles because nursing education is primarily clinically focused. This mix can lead to student and teacher frustration, poor academic performance, and high attrition among nursing students.
Conventional approaches to education assume that learners are uniform in processing and organizing information. Teaching strategies more closely aligned to a variety of adult learners will promote retention and application of new knowledge. The author will describe several learning theories, identify challenges related to dealing with various learning styles, and suggest specific strategies that nurse educators can use to accommodate individual approaches to learning. Although a detailed discussion of cognitive style is not the author's major objective, a brief synopsis is provided to clarify the terms cognitive style and learning style.

2. Cognitive style versus learning style

The terms cognitive style and learning style are often used synonymously; however,Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (2005) pointed out the importance of distinguishing between the two terms. Cognitive style represents a stable characteristic representing an individual's typical manner of receiving and processing information (Knowles et al., 2005). A common distinction in the way learners process information is the global versus analytical approach. A student who is more global will tend to take in the whole picture before taking in the details. The more analytical student will process new information in a step-by-step manner, focusing on a single concept at a time. These approaches correspond to the intuitive versus sensing scale of the Myers–Briggs Personality Type Indicator (Knowles et al., 2005).
Closely aligned with global versus analytical processing is an aspect of cognitive control called field dependence/independence. Knowles et al. (2005) described the work of Jonassen and Grabowski who define field dependence/independence as the degree to which an individual's perceptual field impacts understanding of new information. This cognitive control has been widely investigated and has implications for adult learners. Research findings by Jonassen and Grabowski suggest that field-dependent learners like group-oriented activities, organized information, and external reinforcement, whereas field-independent students learn best in independent, contract-oriented learning environments and prefer inquiry or discovery learning (Knowles et al., 2005).
Cognitive psychologists distinguish three other categories of typical ways learners acquire and process information: visual, verbal, and tactile or psychomotor (Knowles et al., 2005). These approaches to processing information are addressed in Fleming and Mills' model of learning styles.
Learning style refers to a broader concept that includes cognitive functioning and indicates general preferences for methods and environments for learning. Learning styles encompass cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and physiologic dimensions (Knowles et al., 2005). Dunn and Griggs (2000) describe learning style as the “way students begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and difficult academic information” (p. 8). Learning style models that are applicable to college students include Kolb's model, Fleming and Mills' sense-based model, and the Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model.

3. Kolb's model of experiential learning and learning styles

According to Smith (2001), David A. Kolb worked with his associate, Roger Frye, in the late 1970s to develop a well-known learning model referred to as the experiential learning model. Kolb was interested in the process of understanding concrete experiences and the variety of learning approaches that could be used. In l976, he published the Learning Style Inventory (LSI), an instrument often used to assess learning styles (Smith, 2001). Although use of the LSI is well documented, recent research suggests that the LSI may not accurately assess the constructs of Kolb's model (Knowles et al., 2005).
In a direct analysis of Kolb's model, the author found that Kolb emphasized the central role that experience plays in the learning process and defined learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38). Kolb defined a four-stage cycle that represents the way individuals perceive, think, feel, and act when faced with new experiences (Nilson, 2003). The four stages in Kolb's experiential learning cycle include concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation (Kolb, 1984, Loo, 2004 and Nilson, 2003). Learners may enter this cycle at different points because they prefer activities associated with that aspect of the cycle (Nilson, 2003). Knowles et al. (2005) and Nilson (2003)described Kolb's stages as follows:
1.
Concrete experience involves participation in “here and now” experiences with a focus on knowledge that demonstrates the complex.
2.
Reflective observation involves reflecting with patience, objectivity, and empathy from many perspectives with a quick grasp of the meaning of ideas or situations.
3.
Abstract conceptualization relies on logical thinking with a focus on theory building.
4.
Active experimentation focuses on the practical and concrete but uses theory to make decisions and solve problems.
The four stages of Kolb's model provide a valuable framework for designing teaching strategies for adult learners. Nurse educators can design programs, classes, units, or lessons to include all four components. Adult students learn best when content is discussed within real-life situations. Experiential learning is applicable for nursing education in the form of clinical experience, clinical postconference discussions, and the presentation of case studies in the classroom setting.
Combinations of the four learning dimensions led Kolb to distinguish four learning styles described as accommodators, divergers, convergers, and assimilators. Theaccommodators prefer concrete experience and active experimentation and learn best from hands-on experience. Accommodators are adept at carrying out plans with the ability to adapt to changing circumstances. Divergers use concrete experience and reflection to view concrete situations from many different views and enjoy generating alternative ideas by brainstorming. Convergers rely on abstract conceptualization and active experimentation by discovering how things work and using ideas or theories for practical problem solving. Convergent individuals prefer technical tasks and express little emotion. Assimilators use abstract conceptualization and reflective observation to understand, organize, and synthesize large amounts of data into a concise, logical framework ( Knowles et al., 2005, Kolb, 1984, Loo, 2004 and Nilson, 2003).
Kolb (1984) described research data that suggest that experiential learning theory may indicate learning style norms within academic disciplines. Accommodators may be attracted to action-oriented careers such as marketing, sales, or management. Divergers migrate toward service-type careers, the arts, social sciences, or the humanities. Engineers fall into the category of convergers, whereas scientists and academicians are examples of assimilators (Kolb, 1984 and Nilson, 2003). Roe (as cited in Kolb) categorized nurses as assimilators under the discipline of science, although nursing students often have strengths in a variety of learning preferences.

4. Fleming and Mills' Sensory-Based Learning Style Typology

Fleming and Mills developed a learning framework that reflects the preferred physical sense involved in learning (Nilson, 2003). The acronym VARK is used to refer to the four categories of visual, auditory, read/write, and kinesthetic preferences. The visual learner relies on sight to take in information and organize information or ideas in spatial interrelationships. Visual learners prefer presentation of information in the form of diagrams, pictures, and symbols and use color and layout to enhance knowledge retention (Tennent, Becker, & Kehoe, 2005). Students with an auditory learning style prefer having information explained to them. These learners benefit from hearing information in various types of verbal presentation including lecture, discussion, or debate (Nilson, 2003). Auditory learners do well with the traditional teaching methods most commonly used in college classrooms.
Students with a reading preference have a more abstract memory structure and rely on reading or writing to understand new information. These students, sometimes referred to as digital learners, excel when asked to read or write about a subject. Digital learners prefer a well-organized lecture and a well-structured textbook (Nilson, 2003). The reading and lecture format often used in nursing education is beneficial for these learners. In contrast to the digital learner, the kinesthetic prefers a “hands-on” approach to learning and values practical, relevant information. Kinesthetics require active involvement due to excellent eye–hand–mind coordination (Nilson, 2003 and Tennent et al., 2005).

5. The Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model

Dunn describes elements of five basic stimuli that affect an individual's ability to master new and difficult information or skills (Dunn & Griggs, 2000). To maximize learning, students should be aware of their reaction to the following five stimuli:
•
Instructional environment including preference for loud versus quiet, low versus bright light, warm versus cool temperatures, and formal versus informal seating
•
Emotional elements relating to high or low motivation, persistence, responsibility (conformity versus nonconformity), and preference for structure versus choices
•
Sociological inclinations such as preference for variety versus working in a pattern or routine or a desire to work alone or with others
•
Physiological characteristics such as auditory, visual, tactual, and kinesthetic strengths; time of day preference; intake (snacking while studying); or mobility while learning
•
Processing tendencies relating to global versus analytic approaches to learning (Dunn & Griggs, 2000 and Lovelace, 2005)
In a meta-analysis of research studies using the Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model, results overwhelmingly supported the position that accommodating these learning-style preferences with complementary educational strategies improved student attitudes toward learning and improved academic achievement (Lovelace, 2005).

6. Challenges of managing learning styles

When considering learning style frameworks, one must keep in mind that learners may prefer one or two learning styles, but most use a variety of modes to some degree. All students retain and learn more from a variety of instructional strategies. Faculty who solely use a lecture format need to be aware that individuals retain only 10–20% of what they hear (Bowman, 1997 and Nilson, 2003). Nursing instructors are frequently frustrated when students do not remember what was said in class. When students perform poorly on quizzes, instructors often say, “I know I went over that in class.” Educators must acknowledge that saying it in class does not mean students have learned the material.
Adding visual material to a presentation such as pictures or graphics almost doubles student recall. With lecture and visuals, faculty can increase retention to approximately 50% (Bowman, 1997). Speaking involves active cognition as well as hearing and may increase recall to 80% (Bowman, 1997). Combining speaking with doing improves retention to 90%. If faculty teach in auditory, visual, and experiential modes, students may remember 97% of the material presented (Nilson, 2003).
The wide range of learning styles represented in a large group of nursing students makes a single type of instruction ineffective for some in the class. Nursing instructors can learn to use a variety of teaching strategies and student assignments to accommodate a range of learning styles, thus improving retention of complex information. Flexible methods of delivery can also revitalize classroom presentations that may have become routine through years of repetition. Adding a variety of components will take time and planning, but the change can energize the instructor as well as the students.
A challenge for faculty is how to assess learning preferences of individual students. A solution is to ask students early in the curriculum to complete a simple diagnostic tool that indicates learning style. Kolb's LSI and the Productivity Environmental Preference Survey based on the work of Dunn, Dunn, and Price are considered valid and reliable and are appropriate for nontraditional college students and adults (Dunn & Griggs, 2000 and Lovelace, 2005). Kolb's 13-item LSI is widely used and appropriate for use with adult learners (Kolb, 1984 and Loo, 2004). Many faculty in nursing schools across the country require students to purchase National Council Licensure Examination review software that is available from the Assessment Technologies Institute, which includes a research-based self-assessment inventory that evaluates learning style. College counselors are familiar with these tools and could meet with students in an orientation session to administer the tool and discuss learning styles. Once aware of individual learning preferences, students should be encouraged to take responsibility for using their strengths to develop appropriate study techniques. It is imperative that faculty empower students through knowledge of their own learning styles so that students can adjust their behaviors to the learning programs they will encounter in higher education.
Designing lesson plans to accommodate the diversity of learning styles can be time intensive for faculty. Time is a premium for nurse educators who are often away from campus 2 days a week for clinical experiences. It may be unrealistic for nursing faculty to have time to design lesson plans that accommodate all learning styles present in large classes even if the instructor is aware of the nature and extent of diversity. Some of the instructional strategies that follow require only minor modifications of a traditional class format, whereas others involve more elaborate strategies.

7. Teaching strategies to manage learning styles

Nilson (2003) cited work by Smith and Kolb and Harb et al. in suggesting flexible strategies for a variety of learners. Kolb's accommodators who prefer concrete experience and active experimentation benefit from group work that instructors could accommodate by dividing a large class into groups assigned to discuss questions, case studies, and open-ended problems. Experiential strategies such as field trips, role plays, simulations, clinical experiences, internships, laboratory experiences, and practice sessions benefit those who value concrete experience and active experimentation (Knowles et al., 2005).
Inquiry-based learning (IBL) may be attractive to accommodators. IBL is a student-centered learning approach that promotes critical thinking, analysis, and development of self-directed or group-initiated learning (Morris & Turnbull, 2004). IBL often involves using a reality-based clinical scenario to facilitate analysis and exploration of student perceptions. Morris and Turnbull explored the use of student nurses as small-group facilitators in an inquiry-based nursing curriculum. Their data suggest that student nurses were uncomfortable being used as peer teachers in small-group resource sessions. Although Morris and Turnbull report that emerging literature reveals a shift to student-centered learning, faculty should be aware that some students do not feel comfortable with peer-assisted learning.
Another form of student-active teaching called the discovery method involves activities brief enough to simply work into a lecture format (Nilson, 2003). For example, well thought out discussion questions can be interspersed to help students discover subtle aspects of the information being presented. A brief role play inserted into a class can engage students in learning how it feels to be in certain situations. Some students may be uncomfortable going to the front of the class; thus, instructors should ask students prior to class or just ask for volunteers.
Nilson (2003) described various teaching modalities that address the learners identified in Kolb's Model of Learning Styles. Divergers use concrete experience while incorporating reflective observation. These learners respond well to all types of discussions, group projects, emotionally moving stories, interactive lectures, and experiential modes of learning. Convergers prefer demonstrations, computer-aided instruction, simulations, objective homework assignments, field trips, and case studies. In contrast, assimilators who can integrate large amounts of data into a concise, logical format flourish with textbook reading assignments, library research, and logical, factual lectures. The assimilator is comfortable with traditional instructional strategies used in most educational settings.
PowerPoint is a strategy often used by nursing instructors to accompany lectures. PowerPoint presentations can emphasize key points for students who are weak in processing large volumes of information, and case studies can be presented via PowerPoint leading to class discussion that incorporates divergers and convergers. Research suggests PowerPoint presentations are generally viewed positively by students (Frey & Birbaum, 2002 and Susskind, 2005). The dimming of classroom lights to enhance presentations, however, can be distracting for students who are readers/writers (digital learners) who try to take notes or highlight in the textbook.
Knowledge of Fleming and Mills' sensory-based framework can help faculty address learning styles in other ways. Visual learners like pictures, graphs, videos, symbols, and charts that can be incorporated in PowerPoint presentations. Textbooks that incorporate these visuals are helpful in accommodating visuals. During class and while studying, visual learners will benefit from underlining or highlighting, and study strategies include making tables or charts from content and creating symbols for words. Students who are auditory learners benefit from lecture, discussion, and group sessions. Instructors may suggest that they record lectures. Stories, jokes, case studies, and mnemonic devices used in class will also help the auditory recall information. Study suggestions include reading notes or text aloud, explaining topics to others, and making up mnemonic devices.
Readers/writers or digital learners benefit from reading assignments and taking notes during lecture. Faculty should suggest that digital learners rewrite class notes, outline the reading assignments, and practice writing out key ideas or concepts in their own words. To accommodate kinesthetic learners, instructors can incorporate laboratory demonstrations and provide opportunities for students to experiment with hands-on learning. Kinesthetic learners learn from clinical experiences, videos, simulations, role plays, problem-based learning, and real-life examples. The nursing curriculum is conducive to the incorporation of many of these strategies.
Most learning styles described byKolb (1984) and Fleming and Mills (Nilson, 2003) indicate that most learners prefer student-active teaching strategies. Bowman (1997)recommended strategies that are quick and easy for instructors to incorporate into lectures. Because most adults can focus on a speaker for only about 20–30 minutes, Bowman suggests short, quick “pair shares” that are designed to give students a chance to review information in small chunks. Teachers can stop after 30 minutes and have students engage in a brief activity or “pair share” that involves asking students to
1.
tell a nearby classmate three things learned in the past 30 minutes
2.
tell a classmate the most important point of the information just presented
3.
think of a motion that represents the information being discussed and show it to a classmate
4.
think of how the information just presented can be used
5.
represent the information with an animal, color, movie title, and so forth
6.
write down one word that captures the essence of the topic being presented
7.
draw a doodle representing the most important point just heard (Bowman, 1997, pp. 29–30).
These quick techniques encompass many learning styles, and when students hear, see, and speak, knowledge retention approaches 80% (Bowman, 1997).
Another student-active teaching strategy called the jigsaw originated as a way to help students learn how to help each other learn by division of labor (Joyce et al., 2000 and Nilson, 2003). A large class can be divided into groups by numbering students one through five to implement this strategy. All number ones gather and decide how to teach one aspect of a topic with the other numbers being assigned other topics. The original group of five then gathers and number one teaches the group a topic; the number two person teaches the group a topic and so on. For example, the ones would teach nursing assessment of a patient with diabetes; the twos would teach diabetic testing; the threes would teach diabetic foot care. The rationale for this strategy as a way to facilitate knowledge acquisition is that individuals usually master content they must teach to someone else.
To enhance acquisition of new information, instructors must also acknowledge environmental, emotional, physiological, and psychological factors (Dunn & Griggs, 2000). Environmental factors such as uncomfortable seating or a room that is too cold or too warm or too dark or too bright may be distracting for learners. Global students appreciate dimmer lighting; hence, varied lighting may be appropriate (Dunn & Griggs, 2000). Earphones are recommended for students distracted by noise during testing or while studying. Sociological differences in learning styles can be accommodated with group discussions led by faculty or students. Physiological characteristics include considering the time of day classes or clinical sessions are scheduled, allowing breaks and snacks during class, and permitting students to move around during long class sessions.
Clinical experiences in nursing curriculum provide a wealth of teaching modalities that involve student-centered activities. Clinical postconference facilitates reflection, problem solving, and discussion of real-life situations. Students can be allowed to collaborate in planning clinical activities such as participation in grand rounds, multidisciplinary team meetings, or skill demonstrations. Stories of students' personal experiences with clinical situations and discussion of complex ethical dilemmas are beneficial to most students (Melrose, 2004). Psychological aspects of learning can be addressed in the clinical setting by inviting questions and creating a climate conducive for listening, reflecting, and not knowing (Melrose, 2004). Sociological elements to facilitate learning in the clinical setting include creating a sense of belonging by introducing students to staff, allowing students to attend staff meetings, and encouraging staff to interact with students (Melrose, 2004). These strategies incorporate reflective as well as concrete experiences.
Murphy (2004) examined focused reflection and articulation via journal writing and postconferences as clinical teaching strategies to promote clinical reasoning. As cited in the study by Murphy, nurse researchers have documented the value of journal writing in promoting learning and problem solving. Allowing students to reflect on their learning in clinical postconference encourages students to evaluate their learning and develop complex thinking (Murphy, 2004).
Because adult learning is grounded on real-world experiences (Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2004), clinical experience provides an environment conducive to the learning process and the development of clinical reasoning.
At the college level, student-centered teaching methods are more effective, enjoyable, and memorable than the didactic, large-group, teacher-led approach traditionally used in nursing education (Morris & Turnbull, 2004). Flexible, creative, and student-centered teaching strategies will accommodate a variety of learning styles, revitalize classroom presentations or clinical experiences, and maximize student learning. Although adapting a variety of approaches to instructional material can be challenging for nursing faculty, the effort will benefit nursing students faced with a challenging curriculum and a wealth of new information.

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    • Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 704 866 4314 (home), +1 704 922 6368 (work); fax: +1 704 854 9323.

    Vitae

    Janet B. Arthurs, MSN, RNC, is a faculty member in the Associate Degree Nursing Program at Gaston College, Dallas, NC, and is a doctoral student at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.
    Copyright © 2007 National Organization for Associate Degree Nursing. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.